The Future of thermal energy

October 22, 2011

The Future of thermal energy

Luckily for the Earth the future of Solar Thermal Energy is very bright. In the current state of the world’s energy crisis, new uses for solar energy are being developed. The positive aspect of solar energy is the fact that it is completely renewable. It can be used for heating purposes of many sorts, with the use of small, medium, or large solar collectors.

Thermal solar collectors are more efficient than photovoltaic solar collectors because of the lower cost it takes to collect the solar energy. Photovoltaic plants are becoming more common, but have huge startup costs. Solar thermal collectors instead use natural heat collectors such as stone. The thermal energy is concentrated with the use of mirrors or lenses (in the form of a reflector dish) to concentrate the sunlight into a small area. This concentrated sunlight is then transferred to heat fluid inside an absorber tube. This is then transferred to a heat engine, which can convert the heat into electricity.

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Solar Thermal Energy has several additional advantages. The heat can be stored in insulated reservoirs and then used later. Thermal plants can even produce power at night and on overcast days. Thermal energy can also be used to desalinate water, which will be very useful in coastal areas.

The technology is simple, reliable and needed! It is estimated that solar thermal could provide all of the power requirements of the United States. This could be accomplished with the use of a 92 by 92 mile grid of solar thermal generators. This might be a large area but considering the amount of land that is available, and the benefit it will have for society, it is certainly a viable option.

There are three types of solar energy heat collectors and all are used in conventional systems. Low temperature collectors are flat plates that are most often used to heat swimming pools. Medium temperature collectors are also flat plates, but are used for creating hot water for residential and commercial use. High temperature collectors are not in plate form, but instead use mirrors and lenses. They can be used for some electric power production.

Low temperature collection is used for heating, cooling, ventilation, and processing heat. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning account for 25 percent to 50 percent of the energy used in residential and commercial buildings. This can be offset with thermal energy. This thermal technology stores solar energy during the day and then releases it in the evening or whenever the temperature lowers. The most common thermal mass materials include stone, concrete, and water. Thermal energy is used in this case as a passive system which maintains comfortable temperatures through the slow release of energy.

Medium temperature collectors are most used for cooking. The solar cookers are used for cooking, drying, and pasteurization. This sort of thermal energy use diminishes air pollution, as well as reduces the use of fuel and firewood.

High temperature collectors are used primarily for space heating, using fluid-filled pipes. This is still not used for large scale conversion to electricity as the temperatures are still too low.

Written by admin · Filed Under Water Desalination

energy management

October 13, 2011

by roplant

energy management

Energy is the lifeline to prosperity and growth of infrastructural development in any country. The energy thus would need to be ensured for its availability on sustainable basis. The demand of energy is growing at a very fast rate and the energy sources are becoming scarce and costlier day by day. In the power sector alone, we need to add over 100,000 MW of additional generating capacity in Xth & XIth Plans to meet the power on demand by 2012. This would necessitate mobilization of nearly Rs.8000 million investments by the year 2011-12 which is a very daunting challenge before the country.

Among the various strategies to be evolved for meeting energy demand, efficient use of energy and its conservation is by far the least cost option. The steps to create sustainable energy system begin with the optimal use of resources. Energy efficiency improvement is the mantra that leads to achieving sustainable energy systems.

In a scenario, where India faces peak power and energy shortages of the order of 8–10%, meets 70% of the petroleum products demand through imports, conservation and energy efficiency measures will play a central role. The Electricity Act, 2003 and the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 are the Government’s major Legislative initiatives towards creating an enabling framework for a sustainable and more efficient future management of our primary and secondary energy resources. Government of India has accorded high priority to the Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservations measures and launched the Campaign on Energy Conservations in 2004. In order to maintain the momentum of energy conservation campaign and to make all the energy users to realize their potential role in promoting energy conservation in the country, Ministry of Power and Bureau of Energy Efficiency have decided to continue the National Campaign on Energy Conservation, which was launched last year. The main goal of the campaign is to reduce energy costs by reducing demand for energy and help individual citizen to make small behavior changes that collectively will make a big difference.

STRATEGIES FOR THE TARGETED SECTOR

Industrial Sector

Nearly 50% of the total conventional energy available is consumed in the Indian industries. The large and medium scale industries have taken up many programmes in past to conserveenergy. To maintain the tempo, the currentawareness programme will focus on this sectorthrough the organisation of sector specificworkshops on energy conservation. The focussector in this year campaign will be cement,pulp & paper, aluminium, petrochemical andrefineries. The workshops and conferences willbring together people from across the countrywho are committed to helping the nationdevelop a long-term, sustainable energydirection.

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency plans to undertake life long learning programme on energy conservation for certified energy managers and energy auditors. A large number of industrial units have also come forward to participate in the national campaign and organize various activities and programmes to create awareness among their employees. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) plans to request the top Management of Industry to declare their Energy Management Policy. Already 44 industries and commercial establishments have declared their energy management policies, during the campaign 2005. This has already given a much required momentum to energy efficiency improvements drive in the industry. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) coordinates all the planned awareness campaign activities for this sector.

Commercial Sector

The issue in this sector can be addressed effectively through print media by insertions on tips to save electricity. Organizing of workshops, and symposiums, demonstration of energy efficient lighting system in the Trade Fairs, etc. does contribute in achieving the objective in effective manner. Bureau of Energy Efficiency has the primary responsibility of creating the awareness through print & electronic media in this sector.

Commercial buildings owners will be requested to undertake awareness creation programmes for their employees. The newly introduced energy conservation award scheme for Commercial and Government buildings will be expended to include shopping malls and offices as well, in the modified EC Award scheme.

Domestic Sector

Domestic Sector being in the category of unorganized sector, it requires a mix of strategies for a sustainable energy conservation awareness campaign. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency will be releasing insertions on regular basis on ‘simple trips’ on how to save electricity in the lighting, refrigerators , air-conditioners and other electrical appliances. Bureau also plans to launch Voluntary Labeling Scheme, to start with, on refrigerators and fluorescent tube lights. This would provide and facilitate the consumers to make an informed choice of the various consumer goods. A large number of industrial units have also taken initiatives and come forward to create awareness amongst the residents of their townships and neighborhood areas through organizing various energy conservation programmes, posters, quiz and slogan competitions and other such activities

Agricultural Sector

Regular insertions would be made by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency in the print media on simple tips to save energy in the electricity and diesel operated agricultural pump sets. Further, manufactures of these pump sets are being involved in demonstrating the improved energy efficiencies in the modern designs of agricultural pumps in various Trade Fairs, seminars, workshops etc. as well as local Fairs. Some of the industrial units have already committed to organize awareness programme for the farmers and villagers.

Educational Institutes

In the campaign, organized this year thrust is placed on the messages that can stimulate active involvement of the young to attitudinal changes in regard the energy saving habits since their childhood. The objective is to make energy saving practices as part of their involuntary actions of their daily life. The effort is also intended to expand the campaign impacts by involving the school children so as to spread the energy conservation messages through their friends, parents and other relatives. The major activity, which is planned to be undertaken in this regard, is the continuation of ‘Painting Competition on Energy Conservation’ for the children at School, State / UT and National Level. The continuation of this activity will not only make aware the children about the need of conserving energy, but at the same time, would necessarily educate and involve their parents in the above cause. The identified activity is one of the measures, which can help in creating awareness in the domestic sector. The painting competition also aims to motivate the children towards energy conservation and offer them a chance to explore their creativity and in turn help the nation in SAVING ENERGY

Chapter 2 ENERGY- AN INTRODUCTION

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. In the layman language it can be said that energy lights our cities, powers our vehicles, and runs machinery in factories. It warms and cools our homes, cooks our food, plays our music, and gives us picture on television.

Energy can be found in a number of forms:

CHEMICAL ENERGY
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
HEAT(THERMAL) ENERGY
LIGHT ENERGY
MECHANICAL ENERGY and
NUCLEAR ENERGY

Energy makes everything happen and can be divided into two types:

Stored energy is called POTENTIAL ENERGY
Moving energy is called KINETIC ENERGY

We will take the example of a pencil to know the two types of energy. We put the pencil at the edge of the desk and push it off to the floor. The moving pencil uses kinetic energy. Now, we pick up the pencil and put it back on the desk. We use our own energy to lift and move the pencil. Moving it higher than the floor adds energy to it. As it rests on the desk, the pencil has potential energy. The higher it is, the further it could fall. That means the pencil has more potential energy.

We use energy to do work and make all movements. When we eat our bodies transform the food into energy to do work. When we run or walk or do some work, we ‘burn’ energy in our bodies. Cars, planes, trolleys, boats, and machinery also transform energy into work. Work means moving or lifting something, warming or lighting something.

The discovery of fire by man led to the possibility of burning wood for cooking and heating thereby using energy. For several thousand years human energy demands were met only by renewable energy sources- sun, biomass, hydel and wind power.

As early as 4000-3500 B.C. the first sailing ships and windmills were developed harnessing wind energy. With the use of hydropower through water mills or irrigation systems, things began to move faster. Fuelwood and dung cakes are even today a major source of energy in rural India. Solar energy is used for drying and heating.

With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the use of energy in the form of fossil fuels began growing as more and more industries were set up. This occurred in stages, from the exploitation of coal deposits to the exploitation of oil and natural gas fields. It has been only half a century since nuclear power began being used as an energy source. In the past century, it became evident that the consumption of non-renewable sources of energy had caused more environmental damage than any other human activity. Use of fossil fuels has led to high concentration of harmful gases in the atmosphere. This in turn has led to ozone depletion and global warming.

There has been an enormous increase in the demand for energy ever since the middle of the last century as a result of industrial development and population growth. World population grew 3.2 times between 1850 and 1970, per capita use of industrial energy increased about twentyfold, and total world use of industrial and traditional energy forms combined increased more than twelvefold.

Due to the problems associated with the use of fossil fuels, alternative sources of energy have become important and relevant in today’s world. These sources, such as the sun and wind, can never be exhausted and are therefore called renewable. Also known as conventional sources of energy, they cause less emission and are available locally. Their use can significantly reduce chemical, radioactive and thermal pollution. They are viable sources of clean and limitless energy. Most of the renewable sources of energy are fairly non-polluting and considered clean. However, biomass is a major polluter indoors.

Renewable energy sources include the sun (SOLAR ENERGY), wind, water (HYDEL ENERGY) agricultural residue, fuelwood, and animal dung (BIOMASS), GEOTHERMAL ENERGY is derived from hot dry rocks, magma, hot water springs, natural geysers, etc. OCEAN THERMAL is derived from waves and also from tidal waves. We will read about all these sources of energy in detail in the coming pages.

Chapter 3 HOW ENERGY IS MEASURED

One of the basic measuring blocks for energy is called Btu or British thermal unit. Btu is defined as the amount of heat energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit, at sea level. It takes about 2000 Btu to make a pot of coffee.

Energy can also be measured in JOULES. One joule is the amount of energy needed to lift 1 pound about 9 inches. So, if we lifted a five-pound sugar from the floor to the top of a counter (27 inches), we would use about 15 joules of energy. It takes 1000 joules to equal a Btu. It would take 2 million joules to make a pot of coffee.

Joule is named after an English physicist named JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE who lived from 1818 to 1889. He discovered that heat is a type of energy.

Around the world, scientists measure energy in joules rather than Btu. It is much like people around the world using the metre system, metres and kilograms. Like in the metric system, you can have kilojoules: ‘kilo’ means 1000, therefore, 1000 joules = 1 kilojoule = 1 Btu.

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For example a piece of buttered toast contains about 315 kilojoules(315,000 joules) of energy. With that energy you could:

Jog for 6 minutes
Bicycle for 10 minutes
Walk briskly for 15 minutes
Sleep for one and a half hours
Run a car for 7 seconds at 80 km per hour
Light a 60 watt bulb for one and half hours

In some respects, the global energy system has evolved in a cleaner direction the last 25 years. The share of world primary energy derived from natural gas- the cleanest fossil fuel- has increased by more than 25%. So has the use and generation of renewable energy sources.

Still, the overall efficiency of energy production remains extremely low: on an average, more than 90% of energy consumed is lost or wasted in the process of conversion from raw materials such as coal to the final energy service such as the light to read a book. The main problem isn’t that we use energy, but how we produce and consume energy resources. What we really need are energy sources that will last forever

Chapter 4 CHANGING ENERGY

Energy can be transformed into another sort of energy. But it cannot be created AND destroyed. Energy has always existed in one form or another.

For example:

· Stored energy in flashlight’s batteries becomes light energy when flashlight is turned on.

· Food is stored energy. It is stored as a chemical with potential energy. When our body uses that stored energy to do work, it becomes kinetic energy. If you overeat, the energy in food is not “burned” but is stored as potential energy in fat cells.

· When we talk on the phone, our voice is transformed into electrical energy, which passes over wires (or is transmitted through the air). The phone on the other end changes the electrical energy into sound energy through the speaker.

· A car uses stored chemical energy in gasoline to move. The engine changes the chemical energy into heat and kinetic energy to power the car.

· A toaster changes electrical energy into heat and light energy.

· A television changes electrical energy into light and sound energy.

Chapter 5 FOSSIL FUELS

The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 19th century fired man’s research for alternative sources of fuel to meet energy needs of the mushrooming industries. With realization that fossil fuels could meet this requirement, the energy needs of the world were fulfilled for the time being.

FOSSIL FUELS are called so because they have been derived from fossils, which were formed millions of years ago during the time of dinosaurs. They are fossilized organic remains that over millions of years have been converted to oil, gas, and coal. Because their formation takes so long, these sources are also called non-renewable.

These fuels are made up of decomposed plant and animal matter. When plants, dinosaurs and other ancient creatures died, they decomposed and were buried, layer upon layer under the ground. It took millions of years to form these layers into a hard, black rock like substance called COAL, a thick liquid called OIL or PETROLEUM, and NATURAL GAS-THE THREE MAJOR FORMS OF FOSSIL FUELS.

Fossil fuels are usually found below the ground. Coal is either mined or dug out while oil and natural gas are pumped out. Coal is widely distributed and is easier to locate than oil and gas.

Fossil fuels take millions of years to make, but burn and disappear in seconds. Once they are used, they cannot be reused. People have irretrievably damaged the planet by extracting and burning these fuels. It is best not to waste fossil fuels as they are not renewable. We have to learn to conserve these sources of energy.

Every year, millions of tones of coal is consumed as energy. This has led to GLOBAL WARMING (greenhouse effect) and the depletion of resources. At present, the worldwide burning of coal, oil and natural gas releases billions of tones of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere every year. Burning any fossil fuel means pollution of some sort. Even if the fuel is low in sulphur, the atmosphere contains nitrogen, which combines with oxygen at high burning temperatures found in boilers, jet or car engines. This yields nitrogen oxides, which like sulphur oxide, dissolves in rain to form nitric acid. Both gases are poisonous to humans. Mining and exploration of fossil fuels can cause disturbance to the surrounding ecosystem. The burning of fossil fuels emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen to the atmosphere

Chapter 6 ENERGY CONSERVATION

When we look around we see machines running, lights, fans, cars etc., we simply cannot imagine life without them. We also cannot imagine the amount of energy that is being used to run all this. Fortunately, people all over the world are becoming aware of the problem of consuming too much energy and are making a conscious effort to CONSERVE it and thereby put less pressure on earth. By conserving energy we also lower the amount of pollutants we release into the air and thereby help to keep the air clean.

The interaction between the natural resources and the population has to be maintained at a balance in order to ensure the continuity of the human race. Energy is essential to life and its conservation has become an absolute necessity.

India‘s overall consumption of energy is low, but compared to its gross domestic product production its relative consumption is high. The cost of commercial energy is also high compared to that in most other countries. The industrial sector consumes about 50% of the total commercial energy produced. There is a growing need to bring about improvement in the efficiency of energy use in the industrial sector.

Concerns over the negative environmental impacts of inefficient uses of energy are growing, both globally and regionally. Such concerns require greater national efforts and greater international cooperation to promote energy efficiency and energy conservation. More efficient energy use can increase productivity and economic competitiveness as well as lower greenhouse gas emissions per unit of output.

Energy conservation has been recognized as a national priority for a very long time, but concrete steps have not been taken seriously and the few that have been taken lack in perspective and determination. The growth and demand for energy is increasing at a very fast rate, especially in the INDUSTRIAL SECTOR, THE TRANSPORT SECTOR and the HOUSEHOLD SECTOR, therebyputting a great deal of pressure on the available resources. The need of the hour has become conservation and preservation. Conservation and efficient use of energy in industry has for a long time been a priority of the Government of India. People on their part should become aware of the seriousness and do their best to conserve and preserve this energy. Our small contributions towards conservation can help a lot. Some of these steps can be:

In our home we can save energy by turning off appliances, TV’s and radios that are not being used, watched or listened to.
Switch off lights when no one is in room.
By putting insulation in walls and attics, we can reduce the amount of energy it takes to heat or cool our homes. Insulating a home is like putting on a sweater or jacket when we are called instead of turning up the heater.

Chapter 7 WHAT IS ENERGY MANAGEMENT

ENERY MANAGEMENT iscollective term for all the systematic practices to minimize and control both the quantity and cost of energy used in providing a service. Important components of energy management include:

Staff involvement and awareness
Minimization of energy wastage
Ongoing monitoring, target setting and reporting to ensure energy use remains within policy objectives
Optimisation of energy efficiency through passive means and/or the use of appropriate technology
Use of the most appropriate energy source( eg electricity, gas, solar) with due regard to the environmental benefits
Purchase of energy at the most economical price
Modifications of operations, where possible, to make the best use of energy price structure
Increasing the use of energy from renewable sources

Many businesses consider energy as an overhead rather than a resource that is considered uncontrollable by the management but energy management is not only possible but also helps in bringing down the expenses of a business and helps the society on the whole by controlling pollution and using the resources in the most optimum way. With help of various firms one of them being ENER-G which is providing innovative solutions and technology energy management has become easily achievable.

The AIM of energy management is to reduce the amount of energy a building consumes. Good energy management starts from an understandingof how a building uses energy. The next stage is to identify inefficiencies and agree actions to improve efficiency. These actions need associated targets and ongoing monitoring to measure their performance.

Actions taken to improve efficiency can vary. Some cost nothing, others are low cost and some require greater investment. Some use technology other focus on people but good energy management will usually deliver savings through a combinations of all thestepswhich best suit an organization. Improving energy efficiency can bring many benefits:

Lower energy costs
Reduced carbon emissions
Improved working conditions
Better control
Ensures legislative compliance
Aids ISO 14001 accreditation
Demonstrates corporate and social responsibility

Chapter 8 RELATIONSHIP OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT TO OTHER BUSINESS MANAGEMENT PLANS.

Energy management should not be undertaken in isolation but should be a strategic component of a comprehensive business management plan. Energy management not only makes good financial sense it also protects the environment by reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions attributable to government operations.

Agencies that incorporate an energy reduction strategy under the umbrella of a total business management plan are more likely to achieve greater energy savings. Proper planning at the time of procurement can provide lasting financial and environmental benefits to the agency.

Many organizations regard energy costs as unavoidable and fixed. However, energy costs are one of the more controllable variable costs within the agency. Generally, all that is required to ensure the success of an energy management plan is the commitment of all staff, from the most senior level down to the office floor. In most cases a successful energy management policy will only require a small capital investment and over the short to medium term will actually save money.

Chapter 9 BENEFITS OF ENERGY

MANAGEMENT

By incorporating a good saving plan a business firm is bound to make savings and help in controlling the pollution of the environment. Some of the benefits of a business plan are:

MINIMISING OPERATING COST

It is estimated that a 5%reduction in operating costs is achievable through good house keeping practices and the implementation of a comprehensive energy management program. Additional savings of upto7% should be attainable in the medium to longer term through investment energy efficient technology upgrades.

IMPROVING PROCESS CONTROL

Paying close attention to the operation of building controls will usually improve the performance of building systems, including the elimination of systems working against each other.

IMPROVING WORK ENVIRONMENT

An efficient and better controlled building leads to an improvement in general working conditions for staff. More comfortable surroundings contribute to a more productive workplace.

REDUCING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

For every kilowatt-hour of electricity consumed, approximately 1 kg of greenhouse gas is emitted to the atmosphere. Implementing an energy saving program not only saves money; it reduces the environmental impact of the business following it.

Chapter 10 RENEWABLE ENERGY

In the past century, it has been seen that the consumption of non-renewable sources of energy has caused more environmental damage than any other human activity. Electricity generated from fossil fuels such as coal and crude oil has led to high concentration of harmful gases in the atmosphere. This has in turn led to many problems being faced today such as ozone depletion and global warming.

Therefore, alternative sources of energy have become very important and relevant in today’s world, these sources such as the sun and wind can never be exhausted and therefore are called renewable. They cause less emission and are available locally. Their use can, to a large extent, reduce chemical, radioactive and thermal pollution. They stand out as viable source of clean and limitless energy. These are also known as non-conventional sources of energy. Most of the renewable sources of energy are considered clean, though biomass, is a major polluter indoors.

When we burn a piece of wood it turns into ash. We cannot use this ash to again light a fire. This is exactly what happens to the non-renewable sources of energy such coal, oil and natural gas. Once we burn them they cannot be reused. Other than this they also cause extensive damage to the environment. Some of the renewable energies are:

Solar energy
Hydel energy
Wind energy
Geothermal energy
Biomass
Cogeneration

Chapter 11 SOLAR ENERGY

FORM OF ENERGY: Thermal energy

USED FOR: Cooking/heating, drying/timber seasoning, distillation, electricity/power generation.

SOME OF THE GADGETS AND OTHER DEVICES: Solar cooker, flat plate solar cooker, concentrating collectors, solar hot water systems (domestic and industrial) solar pond, solar dryers, solar hot air systems, concentrating collectors.

FACT: India receives solar energy equivalent to over 5000 trillion kWh per year, which is far more than the total energy consumption of the country.

Solar energy is the most readily available source of energy. It does not belong to anybody and is, therefore, free. It is also the important of the non-conventional sources of energy because it is non-polluting and therefore helps in lessening the greenhouse effect.

Solar energy has been used since prehistoric times, but in the most primitive manner such as drying clothes. Before 1970, some research and development was carried out in some countries to exploit solar energy more efficiently. But most of it remained mainly academic. After the dramatic rise in oil prices in the 1970′s, several countries began to formulate extensive research and development programmes to exploit solar energy.

India is one of the few countries with long days and plenty of sunshine, especially in the Thar desert region. This zone, having abundant solar energy available, is suitable for harnessing solar energy for a large number of applications. Solar thermal energy is being used in India for heating for both industrial and domestic purposes. A 140 MW integrated solar plant is to be set up in Jodhpur but the initial expense incurred is still very high.

Solar energy can also be used to meet our electricity requirements. Through Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) cells, Solar radiation gets converted into DC electricity directly. This electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the battery. This stored electrical energy can then be used at night.

SPV can be used for a number of applications such as:

Domestic lighting
Street lighting
Village electrification
Water pumping
Desalination of salty water
Railway signals

If the means to make efficient use of solar energy be found, it would reduce our dependence on non-renewable sources of energy to a large extent.

Chapter 12BIOMASS

FORM OF ENERGY: Chemical energy

USED FOR: Cooking, mechanical applications, pumping, power generation, transportation.

SOME OF THE GADGETS AND OTHER DEVICES: Biogas plant/ gasifier/burner, gasifier engine pump sets, stirling engine pump sets, Producer gas/biogas based engine generator sets, ethanol/methanol.

FACT: Half a kilo of dry plant tissue can produce as much as 1890Kcal of heat which is equivalent to the heat available from a quarter of kilogram of coal.

Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. It is derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from the timber industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest, major parts of household waste and wood.

Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing as it releases when consumed as a fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the same equipment or power plants that are now burning fossil fuels. Biomass is an important source of energy and the most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil and natural gas.

Traditional use of biomass is more than its use in modern application. In the developed world biomass is again becoming important for applications such as combined heat and power generation. In addition, biomass energy is gaining significance as a source of clean heat for domestic heating and community heating applications. In fact in countries like Finland, USA and Sweden the per capita biomass energy used is higher than it is India, China or in Asia.

Biomass fuels used in India account for about one third of the total fuel used in the country, being the most important fuel used in over 90% of the rural households and about 15% of the urban households.

Instead of burning the loose biomass fuel directly, it is more practical to compress it into briquettes( compressing them through a process to form blocks of different shapes) and thereby improve its utility and convenience of use. Such biomass in the dense briquetted form can either be used directly as fuel instead of coal in the traditional chulhas and furnaces or in the gasifier. Gasifier converts solid fuel into a more convenient to use gaseous form of fuel called producer gas.

Scientists are trying to explore the advantages of biomass energy as an alternative energy source as it is renewable and free from net CO2(carbon dioxide) emissions, and is abundantly available on earth in the form of agricultural residue, city garbage, cattle dung, firewood, etc. Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected to become one of the key energy resources for global sustainable development.

At present, biogas technology provides an alternative source of energy in rural India for cooking. It is particularly useful for village households that have their own cattle. Through a simple process cattle dung is used to produce a gas, which serves as fuel for cooking. The residual dung is used as manure.

Biogas plants have been set up in many areas and are becoming very popular. Using local resources, namely cattle waste and other organic wastes, energy and manure are derived. A mini biogas digester has recently been designed and developed, and is being used in-field tested for domestic lighting.

Indian sugar mills are rapidly turning to BAGASSE, the leftover of cane after it is crushed and its juice is extracted, to generate electricity. This is mainly being done to clean up the environment, cut down power costs and earn additional revenue. According to current estimates, about 3500 MW of power can be generated from bagasse in the existing 430 sugar mills in the country. Around 270MW of power has already been commissioned and more is under construction.

Chapter 13HYDEL ENERGY

FORM OF ENERGY: Potential/kinetic energy

USED FOR: Power generation

SOME OF THE GADGETS AND OTHER DEVICES: Turbine generators

FACT: On an average, the 60 million sq km of tropical seas absorb solar radiation equal to the heat content of 245 billion barrels of oil.

ENERGY FROM WATER SOURCES

The energy in the flowing water can be used to produce electricity. Waves result from the interaction of wind with surface of the sea and represent a transfer of energy from the wind to the sea. Energy can be extracted from the sea by creating a reservoir or basin behind a barrage and then passing tidal waters through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity.

MINI OR MICRO HYDRO POWER

Hydro power is one of the best, cheapest, and the cleanest source of energy, although, worth big dams, there are many environmental and social problems as has been seen in the case of Tehri and the Narmada Project. Small dams are, however, free from these problems. This is in fact one of the earliest known renewable energy sources, in the country (since the beginning of the 20th century).

In fact, for the last few hundred years, people living in the hills of the Himalayas have been using water mills, or chakki, to grind wheat. The 130 KW small hydropower plant in Darjeeling set up in 1897, was the first in India. Besides being free from the problem of pollution, such plants are also free from issues and controversies that are associated with the bigger projects, namely affecting the lives of thousands of people living along the banks of the rivers, destruction of large areas under forest, and seismological threats.

New environmental laws affected by the danger of global warming have made energy from small hydropower plants more relevant. These small hydropower plants can serve the energy needs of remote rural areas independently. The real challenge in a remote area lies in successful marketing of the energy and recovering dues. Local industries should be encouraged to use this electricity for sustainable development.

It is a technology with enormous potential, which could exploit the water resources to supply energy to remote rural areas with little access to conventional energy sources. It also eliminates most of the negative environmental effects associated with large hydropower projects.

ENERGY FROM THE SEA-OCEAN THERMAL, TIDAL AND WAVE ENERGY.

Large amount of solar energy is stored in the oceans and seas. On an average, the 60 million square kilometer of the tropical seas absorb solar radiation equivalent to the heat content of 245 billion barrels of oil. Scientists feel that if this energy can be tapped a large source of energy can be tapped a large source of energy will be available to the tropical countries and to other countries as well. The process of harnessing this energy is called OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion). It uses the temperature differences between the surface of the ocean and depths of about 1000m to operate a heat engine, which produces electric power.

Energy is also obtained from waves and tides. The first wave energy, project with a capacity of 150MW, has been set up at Vizhinjam near Trivandrum. A major tidal wave power project costing of Rs. 5000 crores, is proposed to be set up in the Hanthal Creek in the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat.

In some countries such as Japan small scale power generators run by energy from waves or the ocean, have been used as power sources for channel marking buoys.

Ge Reverse Osmosis Filters – A Review

October 10, 2011

by greenlagirl

Ge Reverse Osmosis Filters – A Review

GE reverse osmosis filters are expensive to replace and their lifespan is much shorter than other better systems. The GE reverse osmosis water filter may be said to “bring good things to living”, but that’s just marketing.

Currently, the manufacturer’s suggested retail price for a GE reverse osmosis replacement filter is 9.99. Of course, through different outlets, you may be able to get a better price than that, but for comparison’s sake it’s a starting point.

Reverse Osmosis Can Expensive

Many RO systems are expensive to use and maintain. GE reverse osmosis filters are no different. And, depending on where you live, it may be an unnecessary expense.

Alone, RO does not purify. Additional steps must be used to guarantee purity. Depending on the quality of your source, you might need to disinfect, since the GE reverse osmosis water treatment does not remove bacterial contaminants or anything that is lighter, dissolved in or molecularly smaller than the liquid itself.

The system includes GE reverse osmosis filters and a carbon filtration step. That’s an improvement over most RO units. Carbon removes many chemical contaminants. Multi-media blocks remove even more, but that is not included with General Electric’s latest product.

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If you have access to public treatment, you own a well or a spring, you probably do not need GE reverse osmosis filters. If your well is brackish, then the step is needed. But, springs and publicly treated supplies need some filtration, just not RO.

Reverse Osmosis De-Mineralizes Water

You need to remember that GE reverse osmosis water will be de-mineralized. Studies have shown that drinking de-mineralized on a regular basis is bad for your digestive health and could cause nutritional deficiencies. If you have hard-water, a better choice is ion exchange to “soften” it.

If you must use GE reverse osmosis filters, then you must have a re-mineralization step. That’s an expensive step. It is mostly used in desalinization plants.

For this purpose, the new mineral revitalization system would be a better choice, since it includes numerous steps including RO. Of course, it is quite expensive, but if your source requires it, that’s really your only choice.

The prices of GE reverse osmosis water filtration systems vary from dealer to dealer. It is not available, at this time, direct from the manufacturer, so of course you are paying dealer mark-up. Depending on where you go, you may be able to negotiate a better price, but you will pay between five and ten thousand dollars for the product.

You also have to remember to factor in the cost of use. Additional electricity is required in many cases. Installation requires a plumber and typically an electrician. At the rates they charge, that could be very expensive. From an environmental standpoint GE reverse osmosis filters can be wasteful, both because of the need for electric and because of wastewater created.

The bottom line is that for most of us GE reverse osmosis water will not bring good things to our lives. Regardless of what the commercials say. See my website for other water filter systems you should consider. Larry L. Taylor

Copy this video, make your own, spread the word. All animals drink the water as they are waiting to be put into the supply. Meats are put through processes involving water. Tobacco plants, vegetable plants and so on may be exposed to these toxicities without us being told about it until it’s a crisis where they benefit. Let’s act now and demand that something be done. Why is desalination an important issue in Florida? With more than 120 desalination plants in Florida, our state leads the nation in desalination. Texas has 38, California, 33. Florida leads because the water underneath, east and west of the peninsular is salty. The increasing demand for water, coupled with the state’s vulnerability to drought events, compel water planners to consider all alternatives. The 2001 and 2007 droughts stressed surface water systems, but seawater sources are not affected by drought. Seawater could help solve Florida water woes www.uswaternews.com South Florida currently has 30 brackish and two seawater desalination plants with seven brackish water plants now under construction. By 2012, brackish and seawater desalination plants will have the capacity to produce 250 million gallons of potable water per day. www.sfwmd.gov

Written by admin · Filed Under Water Desalination

Does the Ambitious Desertec Energy Grid Project Spanning Two Continents Make Sense?

October 6, 2011

by roplant

Does the Ambitious Desertec Energy Grid Project Spanning Two Continents Make Sense?

This is where they will set up a grid spanning around the Mediteranian, through the countries of N. Africa, and all of Europe too. All connected producing electricity, and the system will include almost all alternative energy, rather including nuclear along the grid, but mostly it is focused on Solar and Wind, and some Geothermal too.

And in this scheme they will desalinate water as well, If you’d like to learn more you can watch the Discovery Channel Special on this. I’ve even listened to a TED Conference Speaker give the run down on it. Also met with a Chemistry Nobel Prize winner, who is actually a physicist explain it all; Dr. Walter Kohn. He gave a great slide show presentation on it all. Pretty large undertaking, and tying in all the desalination, water issues, solar and wind, geothermal, hydro and nuclear power is impressive.

With regards to the Desertec scheme, I would be concerned with nuclear, as I believe Algeria, Libya will be future problems in the nuclear proliferation space. And yes, the storage of spent fuel rods is a problem, although there is some new technology on the horizon to re-use most of the rest in a new innovative reactor scheme. Bill Gate’s Foundation has invested in this technology. I am personally pro-Nuclear for energy, and ocean wave. Not too impressed with wind and waiting for better technology and efficiency in solar to take hold, lots of R and D is helping now, and much would be rushed to market once proven. I mean the Aztecs were not as stupid as they looked, worshipping the Sun seems like a hot idea?

The Concept seems interesting, massive, a giant grid spanning two continents, it’s a cool idea. Quite futuristic, however, I am not a Global Warming Alarmist by any means, but agree we need to watch the pollution discharges; ocean dead zones, air quality, water quality, etc. No matter what you think of this 500 Billion Euro to 1 Trillion Euro project, it could bring energy to a massive population without polluting, which is the aim of the project. If they were to pull it all off and it could easily take 20-years to complete, it would be a great way to unite all those countries in a common cause for a good reason. So please consider all this.

Lance Winslow is a retired Founder of a Nationwide Franchise Chain, and now runs the Online Think Tank. Lance Winslow believes it’s hard to write 20,000 articles; http://www.bloggingcontent.net/ – Note: All of Lance Winslow’s articles are written by him, not by Automated Software, any Computer Program, or Artificially Intelligent Software. None of his articles are outsourced, PLR Content or written by ghost writers.

This video illustrates the advantages of the VariGreen Water Desalination Unit. As the need for fresh, potable water continues to increase VariGreen offers an effective and efficent water desalination system that can be implemented in a matter of days and can operate completely, on the endless renewable energy of the sun and wind.

Video Rating: 0 / 5

Written by admin · Filed Under Water Desalination

Reverse Osmosis Feed Water and Pretreatment

October 3, 2011

by xavipat

Reverse Osmosis Feed Water and Pretreatment

The performance of an RO system is largely depending on the composition of the feed water. Feed water quality will determine the amount and the type of pre-treatment necessary to make RO an economical and successful process. This balance is the primary limiting factor of most RO system in operation today. The close relationship between water chemistry and membrane performance is why membrane manufacturers require periodic water analysis in order to maintain membrane warranties. Water sources vary widely around the world, across the country, and even within local areas. All natural waters contain organic and inorganic, dissolved and suspended contaminants. The water composition dictates the types of water treatment process (es) that are used.

After bacteria have absorbed to a wall, the first parts of a bio film are formed. The bio film will increase in size while bacteria keep multiplying and while dead organic matter absorbs to the bio film structures. Despite the fact that bio films influence the water flow, it still attracts small suspended solids and microorganisms. The bio film deposits become a strong, coherent whole that is very hard to remove. Eventually, parts of the bio film will be released and spread through the system components, including the membranes. When they are attached to the membranes, microorganisms start multiplying, using nutrients that are present in the feed water. As a result a bio film will develop on the membranes, which encumbers the feed water flow through the membrane. This results in a higher pressure, which causes higher system costs and irreparable damage to the membranes.

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Successful long-term performance of reverse osmosis systems primarily depends on three factors:

1) Proper pretreatment

2) Adequate system design

3) Attention to operation and maintenance.

The net result of the proper pretreatment is as optimization of:

1) Product flow

2) Product recovery

3) Salt rejection

All which can be directly translated to operating cost.

Membrane Fouling

1) Scale formation

2) Biological slime formation

3) Suspended solids

4) Colloids

5) Metal oxides

6) Oil and grease deposition

Applications: Reverse Osmosis systems are generally used for Desalination of sea and brackish waters for potable water application. The RO separation process plays a useful role in cleaning various industrial effluents including pulp and paper; recovery of metals from electroplating wastes; recovery of valuable products from acid mine drainage; municipal wastewater reclamation; and the production of ultrapure water for boiler, semiconductor, and pharmaceutical industries.

5 Potential Health Consequences of Reverse Osmosis Systems

October 3, 2011

by Sasyl

5 Potential Health Consequences of Reverse Osmosis Systems

Most of the focus for water quality has been on pollution and removing contaminants to a level considered safe for drinking water. Now there is also concern that we may be taking out essential nutrients needed for our health. As early as 1980, the World Health Organization(WHO) began to notice some effects on the populations that were using desalinated water. They concluded then that completely demineralised water has a “definite adverse influence on the animal and human organism.”

No where on earth is there naturally occurring, chemically pure, water. That is because water is the universal solvent. Lots of compounds readily dissolve into water. So, as it flows, it collects additives. Some are good and many, especially the man made ones, are harmful. There are ways to purify water, such as with a reverse osmosis system.

Desalination is a process for providing fresh water from brackish or sea water. The practice has been in use for over thirty years. Fresh water is achieved with the use of a reverse osmosis system. There are thousands of desalination plants around the world, producing 6 billion gallons of water a day, or more.

In 2005, WHO presented a publication titled: Nutrients in Drinking Water. One whole chapter was devoted to the health risks of consuming water that had the minerals removed. All methods of artificially producing demineralised water were discussed, including the home use of reverse osmosis systems.

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The WHO publication discussed 5 possible health consequences of consuming water with a low mineral content:

There is a negative effect on water and mineral homeostasis mechanisms of the body. It causes an increase in urine output that, in turn, causes an electrolyte imbalance.

No intake of calcium and magnesium from low-mineral water is associated with an increase in death from cardiovascular disease, a higher risk of fracture in children, some neuro-degenerative diseases , low birth weight of babies and even some types of cancer.

Intake of other essential elements and micro elements is reduced in low mineral water. It is needed since, the modern diet may not be an adequate. Even the low intake of the element with drinking water is important. This is because the elements are more easily absorbed from water than from food.

Loss of calcium, magnesium and other essential elements can be as high as 60%, or even more, when preparing food with low mineral water. Since the diet may not provide adequate amounts of these minerals, further reductions may cause severe deficiencies of these nutrients.

There is a possible increase in intake of toxic metals due to leaching from pipes or storage tanks.

The conclusion reached was that drinking water should contain minimum levels of essential minerals, such as calcium and magnesium. And it was made clear, that using any type of a reverse osmosis system, removes these essential nutrients.

When the need for water purification in the home was recognized thirty years ago, the commercial application for reverse osmosis systems were scaled down to fill that need. Now, with the better filter technology available to remove the pollutants, and also leave the minerals in the water, use of a reverse osmosis system in the home may not be a healthy choice.

Israel’s Finance Ministry has granted a license for the country’s fifth desalination plant to be built in the coastal city of Ashdod. The reverse osmosis plant in the Mediterranean coastal city will produce 100 million cubic meters of desalinated seawater a year, comprising 15 percent of Israel’s household water use by 2013. Israel plans to have five such plants up and running that will supply 75 percent of the country’s drinking water within the next two years. Mekorot chairman Alex Wiznitzer says the plants will allow Israel to restore its natural water resources. Israel’s main sources of natural fresh water are underground aquifers and the Sea of Galilee, which has seen dangerously low levels due to overdrawing.

Written by admin · Filed Under Water Desalination

Economy Of Kuwait

October 3, 2011

Economy Of Kuwait

Economy in greater depth

Kuwait is one of the richest countries in the Muslim world. Current GDP per capita reached astonishing peak growth of 439% in the 1970s. But this proved unsustainable and contracted by 58% in the 1980s. However rising global oil demand helped register growth of 91% in the 1990s. Diversification is a long-term issue for this over-exposed economy.

Macro-economic trend

This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kuwait at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Kuwaiti Dinars.

Year

Gross Domestic Product

US Dollar Exchange

Inflation Index

(2000=100)

Per Capita Income

(as % of USA)

1980

7,764

0.27 Kuwaiti Dinars

171.08

1985

6,450

0.29 Kuwaiti Dinars

71.58

1990

5,328

0.29 Kuwaiti Dinars

37.00

1995

8,114

0.29 Kuwaiti Dinars

62.14

2000

11,570

0.30 Kuwaiti Dinars

100

48.92

2005

21,783

0.29 Kuwaiti Dinars

108

64.35

For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.48 Kuwaiti Dinars only. Average wages in 2007 hover around ,250 per month for Kuwaitis. As for skilled and experienced non-Kuwaiti (Engineers, Doctors, and Managers) the average monthly salary is hiked up tremendously, to an average of ,000+ a month excluding living and other benefits. Please, also keep in mind that Kuwait is a tax free country so all the above figures reflect actual take home numbers.

Kuwait is a small country with massive oil reserves, whose economy has been traditionally dominated by the state and its oil industry. During the 1970s, Kuwait benefited from the dramatic rise in oil prices, which Kuwait actively promoted through its membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The economy suffered from the triple shock of a 1982 securities market crash, the mid-1980s drop in oil prices, and the 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation. The Kuwaiti Government-in-exile depended upon its 0 billion in overseas investments during the Iraqi occupation in order to help pay for the reconstruction. Thus, by 1993, this balance was cut to less than half of its pre-invasion level. The wealth of Kuwait is based primarily on oil and capital reserves, and the Iraqi occupation severely damaged both.

In the closing hours of the Persian Gulf War in February 1991, the Iraqi occupation forces set ablaze or damaged 749 of Kuwait’s oil wells. All of these fires were extinguished within a year. Production has been restored, and refineries and facilities have been modernized. Oil exports surpassed their pre-invasion levels in 1993 with production levels only constrained by OPEC quotas.

Oil

Main article: Oil industry of Kuwait

In 1934, the ruler of Kuwait granted an oil concession to the Kuwait Oil Co. (KOC), jointly owned by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (later British Petroleum Company) and Gulf Oil Corp. In 1976, the Kuwaiti Government nationalized KOC. The following year, Kuwait took over onshore production in the Divided Zone between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. KOC produces jointly there with Texaco, Inc., which, by its 1984 purchase of Getty Oil Co., acquired the Saudi Arabian onshore concession in the Divided Zone.

In the Offshore Divided Zone, the Arabian Oil Co. 80% owned by Japanese interests and 10% each by the Kuwaiti and Saudi Governments has produced on behalf of both countries since 1961. The original concession agreements will expire in January 2003; negotiations to replace the concession with a technical service agreement should be completed in 2002.

The Kuwait Petroleum Corporation. (KPC), an integrated international oil company, is the parent company of the government’s operations in the petroleum sector, and includes Kuwait Oil Company, which produced oil and gas; Kuwait National Petroleum Co., refining and domestic sales; Petrochemical Industries Co., producing ammonia and urea; Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Co., with several concessions in developing countries; Kuwait Oil Tanker Co.; and Santa Fe International Corp. The latter, purchased outright in 1982, gives KPC a worldwide presence in the petroleum industry.

KPC also has purchased from Gulf Oil Co. refineries and associated service stations in the Benelux nations and Scandinavia, as well as storage facilities and a network of service stations in Italy. In 1987, KPC bought a 19% share in British Petroleum, which was later reduced to 10%. KPC markets its products in Europe under the brand Q8 and is interested in the markets of the United States and Japan.

Kuwait has about 94 billion barrels (15 km) of recoverable oil reserves. Estimated capacity, before the war, was about 2.4 million barrels (380,000 m) per day. During the Iraqi occupation, Kuwait’s oil-producing capacity was reduced to practically nothing. However, tremendous recovery and improvements have been made. Oil production was 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m) per day by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993. Kuwait’s production capacity is estimated to be 2.5 million barrels (400,000 m) per day. Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to 3.5 million (560,000 m) barrels per day by 2005.

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v d e

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Algeria Angola Ecuador Iran Iraq Kuwait Libya Nigeria Qatar Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Venezuela

Social benefits

Kuwait has a fairly open economy with a lot of multi-national companies operating in the oil-rich nation. Shown here is a Burger King restaurant situated at the Kuwait International Airport.

Diversification

In 2007, hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95% of the Kuwaiti economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remain a long-term issue.

Industry in Kuwait consists of several large export-oriented petrochemical units, oil refineries, and a range of small manufacturers. It also includes large water desalinization, ammonia, desulfurization, fertilizer, brick, block, and cement plants. During the invasion, the Iraqis looted nearly all movable items of worth, especially high-technology items and small machinery. Much of this has been replaced with newer equipment.

Agriculture

Agriculture is limited by the lack of water and arable land. The government has experimented in growing food through hydroponics and carefully managed farms. However, most of the soil which was suitable for farming in south central Kuwait was destroyed when Iraqi troops set fire to oil wells in the area and created vast “oil lakes”. Fish and shrimp are plentiful in territorial waters, and largescale commercial fishing has been undertaken locally and in the Indian Ocean.

Shipping

The Kuwait Oil Tankers Co. has 35 crude oil and refined product carriers and is the largest tanker company in an OPEC country. Kuwait also is a member of the United Arab Shipping Company.

External trade and finance

Kuwaiti exports in 2006

The Kuwaiti dinar is a strong currency pegged to a basket of currencies in which the U.S. dollar has the most weight. Kuwait ordinarily runs a balance-of-payments surplus.

Government revenues are dependent on oil revenues. Kuwait’s fiscal surplus in 2000 was some 15% of GDP, while it reversed to a deficit of more that 2% of GDP in 2001 on sliding oil prices.

The government’s two reserve funds: the Fund for Future Generations and the General Reserve Fund, which totalled nearly 0 billion prior to the invasion in 1990, were the primary source of capital for the Kuwaiti Government during the war. While these funds were depleted to – billion after the war, they currently are estimated around 8 billion. The bulk of this reserve is invested in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In order of importance, foreign assets are believed to be invested in stocks and bonds, fixed yield instruments (mostly short term), and real estate. Kuwait follows a generally conservative investment policy.

Kuwait has been a major source of foreign economic assistance to other states through the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, an autonomous state institution created in 1961 on the pattern of Western and international development agencies. In 1974, the fund’s lending mandate was expanded to include all not just Arab developing countries.

Over the years aid was provided to Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, as well as the Palestine Liberation Organization. During the Iran-Iraq war, significant Kuwaiti aid was given to the Iraqis. The Kuwait Fund issued loans and technical assistance grants totaling over 0 million during its fiscal year ending 30 June 2000.

The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Kuwait was valued at 0,080 million in 2005 by the World Bank.

Other statistics

Investment (gross fixed): 6.6% of GDP (2005 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share:

lowest 10%: NA

highest 10%: NA

Agriculture – products: practically no crops; fish

Industrial production growth rate: -5% (2002 est.)

Electricity:

production: 38.19 billion kWh (2003)

consumption: 35.52 billion kWh (2003)

exports: 0 kWh (2002)

imports: 0 kWh (2002)

Electricity – production by source:

fossil fuel: 100%

hydro: 0%

other: 0% (2001)

nuclear: 0%

Oil:

production: 2.418 million bbl/day (2005 est.)

consumption: 400,000 bbl/day (2006 est.)

exports: 2.57 million barrel/day (2008)

imports: NA

proved reserves: 105.0 billion barrel (2005 est.), including the divided zone.

Natural gas:

production: 8.3 billion cu m (2003 est.)

consumption: 8.3 billion cu m (2003 est.)

exports: 0 m (2002 est.)

imports: 0 m (2002 est.)

proved reserves: 1.572 trillion cu m (2005)

Current account balance: .51 billion (2005 est.)

Exports – commodities: oil and refined products, fertilizers

Imports – commodities: food, construction materials, vehicles and parts, clothing

Reserves of foreign exchange & gold: .296 billion (2005 est.)

Exchange rates: Kuwaiti dinars per US dollar – 0.3014 (2004), 0.298 (2003), 0.3039 (2002), 0.3067 (2001), 0.3068 (2000)

The Future of thermal energy

energy management

Ge Reverse Osmosis Filters – A Review

Does the Ambitious Desertec Energy Grid Project Spanning Two Continents Make Sense?

Reverse Osmosis Feed Water and Pretreatment

5 Potential Health Consequences of Reverse Osmosis Systems

Economy Of Kuwait

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