by Takver

Water Filters – What You Need To Find Out

“The process in which suspended or dissolved impurities are removed from water is known as water filtration”. With the rapid growth of population the quality of water has been greatly affected by industries and humans. Now at present clean water is rarely available equally for domestic and for industrial use. Thus water filters are commonly used for the treatment of raw water. There are many types of filters and water filtration process as discussed below.

Charcoal Filters
Three types are further available. As water passes through Charcoal, it absorbs impurities. Charcoal filters required to be change within 6 months.

Ceramic Filters
These filters are economical, effective with easy maintenance. Water passes through small pores size of ceramic ingredient to remove impurities.

Reverse osmosis
This process take place due to membrane filtration from low to high concentration and is the most useful and valuable process. Water passes through semi-permeable membrane. This process is equally popular for domestic and for commercial use. It is also use for desalination of sea water.

Atmospheric Water Generator
AWG extracts water from humid air and this process is similar to dehumidifier. Air passes through cooling coils which condense the water.

Ultraviolet Filters
The filter process is done by ultraviolet ray of high intensity similar to that of sunlight. The frequency is about 240 nanometers. It kills micro organism.

Magnetic Filters
Water is passed through magnetic field of calcium and magnesium ion in which water looses ability to scale. This electromagnetic water filtration is new technology.

Bottled Water
Drinking water packed in glass or usually in plastic bottles made of Polyethylene terephthalate reduces the contamination chances as water is filtered before bottling.

Home-made Filters
Tap water when comes in home can be filtered through home made water filters. The process involves boiling, settling or is filtered through home filters.

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by Takver

Atlanta – Running Out of Water

An unprecedented drought stretching across the southeastern United States has forced some of the region’s largest cities to declare water emergencies.

The situation has become so serious that officials in Atlanta, where rainfall totals are more than 16 inches below normal, said they could run out of drinking water in a matter of weeks.

“Without any intervention, we are likely to run out of water in less than three months,” said Carol Couch, the director of the Environmental Protection Division in Georgia.

The drought has been sucking the city and its water sources dry.

“We have actually classified it as an exceptional drought,” said David Stooksbury, a climatologist at Georgia State. “Basically [it is] the type of drought that we expect to see about once in 100 years.”

Most of Atlanta’s water supply comes from two lakes. Lake Lanier is the main source, but the drought has affected it.

The city’s second source for water is Lake Allatoona, which should be about 16 feet higher than it currently is and continues losing a foot a week. Docks used for boats sit high and dry, hundreds of feet from the water’s edge.

At the heart of the drought drama is the question of how state and federal officials ration the shrinking water supply.

Georgia officials have threatened legal action if the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers does not drastically cut the amount of water it releases from state lakes for agricultural and industrial use. Much of that released water ends up in Florida and Alabama, where officials are likely to oppose any additional decrease in the flow of water. Florida officials say low water levels already threaten the survival of endangered river mussels.

The corps already came under fire when it accidentally released 22 billion extra gallons of water from Lake Lanier last June, just as the region was sinking into a deep drought.

The dry weather has caused the state governors in the region to request that residents cut back on their water usage.

In the Atlanta area, while the conservation measures inside the home are still voluntary, the entire state is under a mandatory outdoor watering ban.

NO REAL ANSWERS

With the South in the grip of an epic drought and its largest city holding less than a 90-day supply of water, officials are scrambling to deal with the worst-case scenario: What if Atlanta’s faucets really do go dry?

So far, no real backup exists. And there are no quick fixes among suggested solutions, which include piping water in from rivers in neighboring states, building more regional reservoirs, setting up a statewide recycling system or even desalinating water from the Atlantic Ocean.

“It’s amazing that things have come to this,” said Ray Wiedman, owner of an Atlanta landscaper business. “Everybody knew the growth was coming. We haven’t had a plan for all the people coming here?”

Gov. Sonny Perdue seems to be pinning his hopes on a two-pronged approach: urging water conservation and reducing water flowing out of federally controlled lakes.

Perdue’s office was preparing Friday to ask a federal judge to force the Army Corps of Engineers to curb the amount of water draining from Georgia reservoirs into Alabama and Florida. And Georgia’s environmental protection director is drafting proposals for more water restrictions.

But that may not be enough to stave off the water crisis. More than a quarter of the Southeast is covered by an “exceptional” drought — the National Weather Service’s worst drought category. Georgia is smack in the middle of the affected area, which extends like a dark cloud over most of Tennessee, Alabama and the northern half of Georgia, as well as parts of North and South Carolina, Kentucky and Virginia.

State officials warn that Lake Lanier, a 38,000-acre north Georgia reservoir that supplies more than 3 million residents with water, is already less than three months from depletion. Smaller reservoirs are dropping even lower, forcing local governments to consider rationing.

State water managers say there is more water available in the lake’s reserves. But tapping into it would require the use of barges, emergency pumps and longer water lines. And some lawmakers fear if the lake is drained that low, it may be impossible to refill.

The Corps, which manages the water in the region, stresses there’s no reason to think Atlanta will soon run out of water.

“We’re so far away from that, nobody’s doing a contingency plan,” said Major Daren Payne, the deputy commander of the Corps’ Mobile office. “Quite frankly, there’s enough water left to last for months. We’ve got a serious drought, there’s no doubt about it, anytime you deplete your entire storage pool and tap into the reserve.”

But, he said, any calls to stockpile bottled water would be “very premature.”

Still, some academics and politicians are proposing contingency plans in case the situation worsens.

Atlanta Mayor Shirley Franklin said the region should explore piping in additional sources of water?possibly from the Tennessee or Savannah rivers. She even suggested desalinating sea water from Georgia’s Atlantic coast.

“We need to look beyond our borders,” she said.

Former Gov. Roy Barnes, a Democrat who was defeated in 2002, told reporters this week that he had planned to offer grants to fix leaks that waste millions of gallons of water each year. He also said he planned to build three new state reservoirs in north and west Georgia to help insulate the state from a future water crisis. But those plans died when he left office.

“Los Angeles added 1 million people without increasing their water supply,” he told reporters. “And if Los Angeles can do it, I’ll tell you Georgia can.”

It seems the idea of building state reservoirs is gaining steam in the Legislature as Georgia’s battle with the Corps over federal reservoirs heats up.

Lt. Gov. Casey Cagle said he favors building more regional reservoirs shared by multiple communities to harness the 50 trillion gallons of water that fall over Georgia each year.

“You can see that if we can just manage the rainfall and utilize that and make sure that we have abundant storage for it, we can take care of our needs well into the future,” said Cagle, a Republican from Gainesville, the largest city on Lake Lanier.

Some academics say Georgia should start using more “purple water” — waste water that is treated but not to a level where it is drinkable — to replenish the water system. Such measures could make Georgia “drought-proof,” said Todd Rasmussen, a professor of hydrology and water resources at the University of Georgia.

“People have got to start thinking in this direction,” said Rasmussen. “You can’t wear out water. It’s clearly an opportunity that needs to be explored.”

The drought has led to extreme conservation measures.

Virtually all outdoor watering across was banned across the northern half of the state, restaurants were asked to serve water only at a customer’s request and the governor called on Georgians to take shorter showers. Carol Couch, the state’s environmental director, said it’s “very likely” new limits on water usage are needed. Its effecting many business too. Lanscaping has stopped. According to Mission Grounds Gourmet Coffee – coffee sales are off 40%. Car wash owners business down 76 percent.

Scorching summer temperatures and a drier-than-normal hurricane season fueled the drought. State climatologist David Stooksbury, who said it will take months of above average rainfall to replenish the system, is now predicting the drought could worsen if “La Nina” conditions develop and bring little winter rainfall.

“I tell people we need 40 days and 40 nights,” he said with a sigh.

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by roplant

Discover Why Advanced Water Purification Technology is Essential for Your Health & Wellbeing

As all things develop, options increase. Water purification technology is no different. While the methods of water purification are varied, not all are created equal.

Problems Associated with the Earlier Methods

One of the oldest active methods of water purification is distillation. While not very advanced by any means, it set the standard for water purification technology. The process is simple. Water is brought to a boil in a sealed container with a tube leading to another container. Steam condenses in the tube, and drips into the second container. The problem is anything with a boiling point over 100°C is indiscriminately left behind and anything with a boiling point under 100°C is also collected in the second container. Meaning healthy minerals are lost and chemicals are kept.

More efficient methods of water purification are always in demand, especially designs capable of desalination. Reverse osmosis was developed as an answer to this need. Touting the same strengths and weaknesses as distillation, it justified its existence by needing far less maintenance and human interaction than a still, and producing far more water. While obsolete outside of desalination, you will still find people trying to sell this relic of water purification technology.

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Developed to remove contaminates without altering mineral quantity, a water purification technology known as the micro-porous membrane was developed, basically a three part sieve. Each part is designed to block smaller infiltrates than the last. Unfortunately, these methods of water purification are unable to deal with chemicals or bacteria.

Ultra-filtration is a highly advanced and extremely customizable water purification technology. Membranes are chemically constructed to block infiltrates of specific sizes. The problem is you want all the infiltrates removed, not just some or one of them. While custom methods of water purification have vast commercial and industrial use, they’re not intended for drinking water.

To remove chemicals, a water purification technology called electrodeionization is available. Unfortunately, that’s all it can do. Any other infiltrates will either be unaffected or reduce the effectiveness of ion exchange based methods of water purification. Meaning water to be electrodeionized needs to first be filtered of all organic infiltrates.

If sieves and membranes aren’t your thing, water can be bombarded with UV radiation. Involving nothing more than a large flat tank and a series of low density mercury lamps, it is a very effective and efficient germicidal technique.

The Answer to These Problems

Despite all the new and interesting methods of water purification, the most effective water purification technology was developed to counter chemical warfare in WWI. Known commonly as activated carbon filtration, it involves simply passing water through a filter constructed of special charcoal. Activated carbon will block pretty much everything harmful, but leave healthy minerals. A small problem is any blocked bacteria will remain in the filter. This problem was corrected by the addition of silver to the design. Referred to as granulated active carbon (GAC), the life of such a filter is greatly extended.

While there are more methods of water purification, here we’ve covered all actual water purification technology. The rest revolve around pseudoscience and false claims.

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by Ibrahim Asad’s PHotography

Reverse Osmosis systems trouble shooting

Over the past thirty years reverse osmosis (R.O.) technology has become a standard water desalination technique. RO is now applied in a wide variety of industries for the production of pure and low saline process water. RO is also widely used for the desalination of seawater and brackish water for the production of potable water. reverse osmosis systems. can typically remove up to 99% of total dissolved solids. The principles of RO technology is removing dissolved salts by pressurizing the raw feedwater through semi permeable membrane to divide the feed stream into product water (low saline) stream which pass through the membrane and concentrate (reject) water stream usually let to drain.

A properly designed and operated RO system, including appropriate pretreatment processes and equipment such as media filters, clarifiers, and chemical dosing systems, will provide a reliable source of purified water for many years. However, some factors can negatively affect the RO system performance, productivity and salt rejection capability. The performance declines can result from problems or changes arising in one or more of three major areas:

1-    Mechanical failures / system mistakes such as pump or valve failures, improper system recovery, improper pretreatment equipment, etc.

2-    Chemical changes in the RO feedwater.

3-    Microbiological changes in the RO feed water.

As a result of one or more of these occurrences, the RO system may experience a loss of salt rejection and/or productivity.

Some performance losses are irreversible while others can easily be remedied if the causes are diagnosed accurately and appropriate action is taken.

After bacteria have absorbed to a wall, the first parts of a bio film are formed. The bio film will increase in size while bacteria keep multiplying and while dead organic matter absorbs to the bio film structures. Despite the fact that bio films influence the water flow, it still attracts small suspended solids and microorganisms. The bio film deposits become a strong, coherent whole that is very hard to remove. Eventually, parts of the bio film will be released and spread through the system components, including the membranes. When they are attached to the membranes, microorganisms start multiplying, using nutrients that are present in the feed water. As a result a bio film will develop on the membranes, which encumbers the feed water flow through the membrane. This results in a higher pressure, which causes higher system costs and irreparable damage to the membranes.

monitoring required for diagnosis

In order to properly diagnose the symptoms or causes for RO performance changes, it is very necessary to routinely collect relevant system operation data for pretreatment, RO unit and posttreatment equipment.

Upon start up of a new RO system, a data log sheet should be established to determine baseline performance. Data sheets serve to alert to the need for maintenance and/or replacement for some items. Collecting data shall require test kits and calibrated hand-held instruments, such as pH meter and TDS meter.

The most important RO performance variables that should be considered are:

1-    Product water flow rate.

2-    Differential pressure across membrane pressure vessels.  (i.e. pressure difference between feed pressure and reject pressure)

3-    Percent of salt rejection.

Percent of salt rejection can be determined by the following equation:

% Salt rejection =          [ ((CF+CR)/2) -CP] X 100

[ (CF+CR)/2]

% Salt passage = 100 – (%salt rejection)

Where,

CF = Feed TDS

CR = Reject TDS

CP = Permeate TDS

After bacteria have absorbed to a wall, the first parts of a bio film are formed. The bio film will increase in size while bacteria keep multiplying and while dead organic matter absorbs to the bio film structures. Despite the fact that bio films influence the water flow, it still attracts small suspended solids and microorganisms. The bio film deposits become a strong, coherent whole that is very hard to remove. Eventually, parts of the bio film will be released and spread through the system components, including the membranes. When they are attached to the membranes, microorganisms start multiplying, using nutrients that are present in the feed water. As a result a bio film will develop on the membranes, which encumbers the feed water flow through the membrane. This results in a higher pressure, which causes higher system costs and irreparable damage to the membranes.

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by roplant

What is Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is energy derived from the heat stored in the earth. This is very different from thermal energy, which is energy that manifests itself from a change in temperature. Geothermal energy originated from the formation of the planet. It continues to regenerate through radioactive decay within the earth, shifting tectonic plates, as well as from the absorption of solar energy at the surface of the earth. Geothermal energy has been used since Roman times when it was used for space heating and bathing. Now, geothermal electric energy is used for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, and various desalination and industrial applications.

Geothermal power is extremely cost-effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly. In the past, geothermal energy was limited to tectonic plate boundaries. More recently this technology has been expanded to larger spaces. Most renewable energies do not release greenhouse gases. Geothermal energy does have the tendency to release greenhouse gases that are trapped beneath the Earth’s surface. However, they release much smaller amounts of gases than that of conventional fossil fuels. Therefore, geothermal energy lessens global warming when used in lieu of fossil fuels.

Geothermal energy has a low impact on the environment. While the energy released from the earth does carry carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other mixture of gases with them, geothermal energy is still low on the scale of pollutant energies. Many geothermal plants are equipped with emissions-controlling systems, which can reduce emission intensity as well as exhaust from the various gases.

Hot water from geothermal sources may also have trace amounts of dangerous minerals and elements, including mercury, arsenic, and antimony. The disposal of these in rivers renders the water unsafe to drink for humans as well as animals. Many geothermal plants inject these substances back into the earth to preserve the surrounding environment.

Around 70 countries use geothermal heating. This includes both space heating and energy for heating pools. Industrial and agricultural applications also use geothermal energy. Use of geothermal heat pumps grows by about 10% annually.

The direct application of geothermal heating is much more efficient than the use of geothermal energy used for electricity generation. Direct applications have less demanding temperature requirements, and are also much more viable over a larger geographical range. Natural hot springs allow for water to be pumped directly into radiators. Earth tubes and down-hole heat exchangers can also be used without a heat pump. Heat can be extracted via geothermal heat pumps more efficiently than it can be generated by conventional furnaces.

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Swro Design and Energy Recovery Part 1

Conventional Design
Previously, the standard Hydropro design for SWRO with energy recovery incorporated a single multistage centrifugal pump (or positive displacement) with a Hydraulic Turbo Booster. This design is fairly simple and generally does not require a significant increase in system controls or instrumentation and is for the most part a sound, and energy efficient SWRO design.

The hydraulic turbo booster converts the hydraulic energy of the concentrate stream to mechanical energy and then applies this mechanical energy to the full flow of the feed stream in the form of a considerable pressure boost. In a single stage SWRO system, the energy benefit associated with this type of energy recovery device is realized solely in the form of lower pressure (and thus lower horsepower) requirements for the high pressure feed pump. Because the equations used to predict the pressure boost produced by a HTB are usually specific to the manufacturer and dependent upon the system parameters, they will not be explicitly discussed here. In this case, a reasonable assumption would be a 300 psi (693 feet H2O) pressure boost from the HTB operating in a system as described in Example 1 below. The following example is used to demonstrate the reduction in high pressure feed pump horsepower requirements:

This HTB energy recovery device provides a substantial reduction in specific energy consumption, which, depending on the duty cycle and cost of power could pay for itself in a relatively short amount of time.

New Technology
The concept of a work exchanger energy recovery device was certainly not new, and several variations of these devices have come and gone. However, at the time of this proposal, there seemed to be a new approach to the design of these positive displacement devices that eliminated many of the problems associated with previous versions. The PE from Energy Recovery, Inc. (ERI) is an example of a novel work exchanger device that was in a position to profoundly affect the design of SWRO and the energy recovery industry.

The main idea of the Pressure Exchanger is its ability to directly transfer most of the hydraulic energy in the concentrate stream to an equal amount of feed water. The result is a side feed stream equal in flow to the concentrate stream (minus bearing leakage) that is boosted to near membrane feed pressure by the Pressure Exchanger. A small high pressure booster pump is then required to boost the high pressure feed exiting the PE so that it equals the discharge pressure of the high pressure feed pump and the two feed streams can be combined. This pressure boost accounts for pressure losses associated with inefficiencies of the pressure exchanger, losses across the membranes, and piping and fitting losses throughout the system. By significantly reducing the size of the high pressure feed pump to approximate the flow of permeate, the horsepower of the high pressure pump can be reduced by approximately two thirds of the total pumping power required. This substantial reduction in horsepower is, for the most part, specific to the high pressure, low recovery nature of the SWRO system. To illustrate the effect of this reduction in pumping power required, the following example is used:

Although there are other energy considerations besides just pumping power when comparing a system with no energy recovery and a system with a PE, this simple analysis shows a significant reduction in energy consumption when using a Pressure Exchanger.

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How Does Water Treatment Combat Water-Borne Diseases?

Every year millions of people die due to water-borne diseases. Such diseases are caused due to consumption of polluted or contaminated water, which in many parts of the world is contaminated with harmful pathogens, toxic chemicals, and other suspended particulates that make it unfit for drinking. But, then why do people consume such toxins? The answer is simple…often the scarcity of freshwater is the main reason why people tend to drink it from polluted sources.

There are ways of conditioning the water and make it fit for human consumption. A variety of equipment and devices are available for its treatment too. Such devices not just remove suspended solids but, also clean harmful pathogens and microorganisms that are mainly responsible for water-borne diseases.

Process applied for making it drinkable

There are various ways for it. Some of the processes are discussed in brief below:

1. Pre-chlorination – In this process of conditioning chemicals like chlorine is added. This is mainly done to disinfect, control tastes, aquatic growths, and foul odors. Addition of chlorine aids in coagulation and settling of impurities thereby provides you safe and drinkable water free from disease causing pathogens.

2. Aeration – It is done to remove dissolved iron and manganese by circulating air through the liquid by using devices like paddle-wheels, venture tube or diffusers. Sometimes, the liquid itself is passed through air for removing such impurities.

3. Coagulation – In this method various coagulant aids, known as polyelectrolyte are used for water treatment. These substances aids coagulation of the impurities and the waste materials is removed in the form of thick floc formations.

4. Sedimentation – This method is mainly utilized for the separation of solid sediments. It is a physical water treatment process that works on the principles of gravity. There are various devices available today for this process.

5. Filtration – It is a conventional process of filtering out dirt and sediments. Filters are used for the process. There are different types of filters available in the market today – the one that would suit your requirement is determined by a specialist water treatment service provider only.

6. Desalination – It is the process of removing salt. There are various devices and chemicals for the process.

7. Disinfection - There are various chemical disinfectants available in the market today that can be used for killing the pathogens that are the main causes of water-borne diseases in humans and animals.

If you are eager to install or buy any of the conditioning devices or chemicals or need consultation on water treatment, Racine, WI based The Water Store can be the best one to approach. You can trust it for all types of plumbing and water related service needs.

What Is A High Pressure Pump And What Are Its Uses?

A high pressure pump is broadly defined as any pump that can generate high discharge pressure, generally in excess of 800 psi. Pumps that generate pressures between 800 and 3000 psi are known as moderate high pressure pumps, while pumps that generate anywhere between 3000 psi and 5000 psi are known as very high pressure pumps. Apart from these pressure levels, there is another category of pressure pumps known as ultra high pressure pumps that generate pressures significantly in excess of 5000 psi, in the range of 10,000 psi to 40,000 psi.

Common types of pumps used for high pressure applications are reciprocating positive displacement pumps, particularly plunger pumps, which are capable of handling high pressure applications easily. Though in many cases pistons are also used with high pressure pumps, they are usually used only for applications that require working pressures below 1000 psi. One common type of positive displacement pump used for high pressure applications is the triplex plunger pump. Triplex plunger pumps consist of three plungers driven by a single prime mover. The parallel use of three plungers gives the triplex pump a discharge for every 120 degrees rotation of the prime mover. Another similar type of reciprocating pump that performs high pressure pumping duties is the quintuplex plunger pump, which is, as the name suggests, a pump with four plungers driven by a single prime mover. Quintuplex plunger pumps and triplex pumps are commonly known as power pumps and generally found in high-pressure applications.

A device that has found widespread adoption in high pressure applications is the hydraulically driven intensifier or amplifier. These devices use hydraulic pressure to significantly increase the pressure of the fluid being pumped. The intensifier consists of a common rod connecting two pistons with different bore sizes. When hydraulic fluid acts on the larger piston, it causes the smaller piston to be moved. Depending on the direction in which the smaller piston is moved by the hydraulic piston, it either takes suction or pressurizes and discharges the working fluid at very high pressure. There are two types of intensifiers and based on their construction and working, they are termed single shot intensifiers and reciprocating intensifiers. A single shot intensifier consists of one large hydraulic actuator piston and a single, smaller, high pressure piston – both connected by a common piston rod. When the large piston is moved, it makes the smaller piston move and fluid discharge takes place. When the larger piston is returned to its original position, by a spring or air-retraction, the smaller piston moves back, taking in the suction.

On the other hand, for reciprocating intensifiers, there is one large hydraulic piston mounted in the center of a piston rod with two smaller high pressure pistons on either end of the rod. When the pressurized hydraulic fluid acts on one side of the large piston and moves it, one of the smaller pistons takes suction from the low pressure line, while the other smaller piston simultaneously pressurizes the fluid in its bore and discharges it at high pressure. Alternately, when the hydraulic pressure acts on the opposite side of the larger piston, the smaller piston, which was taking suction, pressurizes the fluid and discharges it, and the smaller piston that was discharging, takes the suction.

These high pressure pumps have found uses in a variety of high-pressure applications, with reciprocating pumps such as triplex pumps, commonly being used in high pressure applications such as water pumps for water jet cutting systems plus water jet cleaning systems. Some other applications where high pressure pumps are used include foam firefighting, reverse osmosis desalination, as well as pumping of liquid CO2 and high vapor liquids.

To find and contact a high pressure pump manufacturer, check out Zycon.com for a detailed list.

by roplant

Halt Global Warming by Stopping Fossil Fuel Combustion

After years of warning the world about global warming and its dire consequences, Al Gore, the Nobel Prize winner, has finally taken the next, logical step. He is proposing a solution.

Mr. Gore has realized that conservation measures and “Cap and Trade” measures do not work. The world can be saved only, if we completely eliminate all carbon dioxide emissions during the next forty years.

Converting the electric power generating sector first, does make the most sense. All major technologies for generating electric power from renewable energy sources are in various stages of development. Installations using wind power, solar energy, geothermal heat, and marine power have been started up and are slowly gaining a measurable foothold.

At present, coal fired power plants generate the least expensive electricity. Therefore, market forces will never lead to the shutdown of the most egregious greenhouse gas emitters. Only legislative action can prevent the construction of any new, coal fired power plants.

We must also be aware that it will be very difficult to satisfy our growing electricity demand by building only windmill farms, solar plantations, and geothermal power plants. For many years to come, there will not be enough manufacturing capacity to build an adequate number of electric power plants using renewable energies. Initially, the capital costs of these plants will be high, risks for meeting rated output will be well above average, and elevated maintenance costs will be a common experience.

We also need to address a few unresolved technical issues. The most pressing one is the fact that both wind power and solar power can supply energy only on an interruptible basis. Electric power is a fleeting commodity and we have not yet developed technologies that are capable of storing large amounts of electric energy.

It seems unavoidable that nuclear power generation must assume a more substantial role during the next decades. Nuclear power has become safer and public resistance to nuclear power plants is slowly receding. Nuclear power plants can be installed faster once we begin to rely more on standardized reactor designs.

Nuclear reactors with smaller capacities need to be built as replacements for coal fired plant boilers. Huge amounts of capital and much time can be saved if existing coal plants can be retrofitted with steam produced in nuclear reactors to replace coal fired boilers. Steam turbines, generators, substations, administrative buildings, and cooling towers can continue their operation with only minor performance reductions.

This new type of reactor must be designed to be absolutely safe by installing both passive and redundant safety systems. Retrofit reactors should become available in a very few, standardized designs and in sizes that fit up with the predominant sizes of coal fired boilers in use.

While the US will be replacing, retrofitting, or shutting down its fossil fuel fired plants, it is an opportune time to prepare the US to regain its independence from foreign oil imports.

Very soon, such activity can save the US more than one trillion dollars annually. Past experience shows that petroleum prices and consumption of transportation fuels will maintain their unstoppable growths.

Ideally, the world will continue using its fleets of cars, trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes. Ideally, the world will keep its oil refineries operating and will preserve the huge distribution systems that deliver high quality liquid fuels to all corners of the world. Replacement of transportation fleets, oil refineries, and liquid fuel distribution systems will cost too much and may break the economies of even the richest countries.

We must realize that the world cannot live for more than a few weeks without transportation of foods, goods, and commodities. Famines, riots, and economic upheavals will become unavoidable consequences of the lack of plentiful and affordable transportation fuels.

To protect against such looming, economic disasters, the US must take the lead and learn how to produce petroleum substitutes from biomass. Recent events have taught us that we must never again abuse arable lands to make ethanol or diesel from food crops.

Instead, we must find plant species with very high energy contents and must grow these plants on arid and infertile lands. By using desalinated water and novel industrial farming techniques one can grow enough biomass to supply the entire world with transportation fuels for several centuries. Arid lands are abundant. Best of all, making petroleum substitutes from renewable biomass sources will not have to cost more than per barrel.

Building plants for the domestic production of electric power and of transportation fuels from renewable energies will make the US strategically more secure, will make us economically stronger, will reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by one quarter, will create a huge number of jobs, and will pay for itself by producing large, domestic revenues for many decades to come.

The US must lead the world by example. No other country has the capabilities and the resources to rebuild its energy supply systems.

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